List of Sections and Notes

1.1 Introduction

1.2 Origin of the atmosphere

1.3 Composition of air

1.4 Ozone in the upper atmosphere

1.5 Atmospheric pressure

1.6 Atmospheric temperature

1.7 Atmospheric electricity

1.A Features of the Earth's surface

1.B Photosynthesis and respiration

1.C The densities of air and water vapour

1.D Ground-level concentrations of gases

1.E The chemistry of the destruction of ozone

1.F Mass, density, weight and pressure

1.G The hydrostatic balance

1.H Height, altitude and elevation

1.I Effects of the rarefied atmosphere at high elevations

1.J SI units

1.K Scales of temperature

1.L Mean properties of the atmosphere

2.1 Kinds of radiation

2.2 Solar radiation reaching the Earth

2.3 Attenuation within the atmosphere

2.4 Radiation at ground level

2.5 Albedo

2.6 Ultra-violet radiation

2.7 Longwave radiation

2.A Electromagnetic radiation

2.B Shortwave and longwave radiation

2.C The Stefan-Boltzmann equation

2.D Effects of the various components of solar radiation

2.E The inverse-square law of radiation

2.F The monthly mean extra-terrestrial radiation

2.G Aerosols and volcanoes

2.H Effects of the atmospheric windows

2.I Radiation and crop growth

2.J Effect of an albedo change on global warming

2.K Annual mean longwave radiation

2.L The greenhouse effect 

3.1 Temperature measurement

3.2 Screen temperatures

3.3 Seasonal changes

3.4 Daily changes

3.5 Ground temperatures

3.6 Frost

3.7 Urban temperatures

3.A The transfer of sensible heat

3.B Effects of latitude and elevation on mean temperature

3.C High temperatures and human mortality

3.D Acclimatisation and adaptation

3.E Windchill

3.F Temperature and crops

3.G The annual range of monthly mean temperatures

3.H Cold nights

3.I Growing-degree-days and agriculture

3.J Degree-days and comfort

3.K The conduction of heat

4.1 Changes of state

4.2 Vapour pressure and evaporation

4.3 Features of the evaporation process

4.4 Determining the evaporation rate

4.5 Various evaporation rates

4.6 Values of the evaporation rate

4.A Water molecules

4.B Protection of crops from frost

4.C Saturation vapour pressure and temperature

4.D Rates of evaporation

4.E Dalton's evaporation equation

4.F Effect of drop radius on its evaporation rate

4.G Crop evaporation and yield

5.1 The energy-balance equation

5.2 Energy balances of large scale

5.3 Local energy balances

5.4 Altering the energy balance

5.A Why doesn't the world get hotter?

5.B Does a car's colour influence its temperature?

5.C Factors governing the daily minimum temperature

5.D Estimation of evaporation

5.E Sol-air temperatures

6.1 The hydrologic cycle

6.2 Describing the air's dampness

6.3 Measuring the air's humidity

6.4 Humidity at the surface

6.5 Humidity and human comfort

6.A Aspects of the hydrologic cycle

6.B Alternative ways of stating the air's humidity

6.C Saturation deficit and crop growth

6.D Psychrometer measurements

6.E The weather-stress index WSI

6.F A thermal sensation scale

6.G The Standard Effective Temperature

6.H Evaporative coolers

7.1 Instability and feedback

7.2 Lapse rates

7.3 Instability of the atmosphere

7.4 Examples of instability

7.5 Tornadoes, dust-devils and waterspouts

7.A Feedback

7.B The dry adiabatic lapse rate

7.C The saturated adiabatic lapse rate

7.D The skew T - log p diagram, part 2

7.E Calculation of the foehn effect

7.F Non-local instability

7.G Indices of instability

7.H How an atmosphere becomes unstable

7.I Solar ponds

7.J Tornadoes

7.K Dispersion of ground inversions by fans

7.L Atmospheric instability and air pollution

8.1 The formation of clouds

8.2 Cloud droplets

8.3 Categories and changes

8.4 Fog

8.5 Stratiform clouds

8.6 Cumuliform clouds

8.7 High clouds

8.8 Observing cloudiness

8.9 Amounts of cloud

8.A The formation of cloud by mixing

8.B The Lifting Condensation Level and the Convective Condensation Level

8.C Atmospheric density currents which create uplift

8.D Formation of cloud droplets

8.E The water content of clouds

8.F The evolution of cloud classification

8.G Motoring in fog

8.H Formation of advection fog

8.I Formation of steam fog

8.J Weather satellites

8.K Effect of clouds on global climate

9.1 Clouds and rain

9.2 Raindrop nucleation

9.3 Cloud seeding

9.4 Forming raindrops

9.5 Thunderstorms

9.6 Cloud electricity

9.7 Global electricity

9.A Monthly mean cloudiness and rainfall in Australia

9.B The rainfall rate from stratiform cloud

9.C The Bergeron-Findeisen process

9.D Rainfall intensity and raindrop size

9.E The early history of rain-making

9.F The effectiveness of cloud seeding

9.G Electrification within cumulonimbus cloud

9.H The gradient of electrical potential in the lower atmosphere

9.I Temperature and the frequency of hail

10.1 General

10.2 Rainfall intensity

10.3 Spatial variations

10.4 Variations of rainfall

10.5 Water balances

10.6 Floods

10.7 Droughts

10.8 Snow .

10.A Typical effects of rainfall in agriculture

10.B Rain gauges

10.C Remote rainfall measurement

10.D Indication of seasonal rainfall by tree rings

10.E Acidity and alkalinity

10.F Soil erosion

10.G Estimation of rainfalls for long recurrence intervals

10.H Defining the 'typical' rainfall

10.I The Bradfield Scheme

10.J The possible effect of forests on rainfall

10.K Dependable rainfall

10.L Indices of rainfall variability

10.M El Niño, part 1

10.N The chance of a second dry day after a first

10.O Desert runoff

10.P Water budgets of soil moisture

10.Q Flooding of the Brisbane River in 1893

10.R Droughts in New South Wales

11.1 Oceans and climates

11.2 Ocean temperatures

11.3 Salinity

11.4 The Coriolis effect and the oceans

11.5 Ocean currents

11.A Effects of the oceans on climates

11.B Buoyancy in the oceans

11.C El Niño, part 2

11.D The Coriolis effect

11.E The climate near Lima

12.1 Surface winds of the globe

12.2 Factors governing global winds

12.3 Circulations within the atmosphere

12.4 The upper westerlies

12.5 Jet streams

12.6 Models of the general circulation

12.7 ENSO

12.A Streamlines

12.B Trade winds

12.C The geostrophic wind and isobaric surfaces

12.D The gradient wind

12.E Thickness

12.F Thermal wind

12.G Convergence, divergence and vertical circulations

12.H Baroclinic and barotropic conditions

12.I Balloon flight across Australia

12.J Rossby waves

12.K Vorticity

12.L Jet streams and weather

12.M Clear Air Turbulence

13.1 Introduction

13.2 Airmasses

13.3 Fronts

13.4 Lows

13.5 Tropical cyclones

13.6 Highs

13.A Scales of winds

13.B Frontal disturbances

13.C Subtropical lows

13.D Vortex spreading and stretching

13.E Naming of tropical cyclones

13.F Winds around a tropical cyclone

13.G Global warming and tropical cyclones

13.H Easterly waves

14.1 General

14.2 Sea breezes

14.3 Mountain winds

14.4 Turbulence

14.5 Wind energy

14.6 Sea waves

14.A The wind profile

14.B Winds and housing

14.C Sea breezes

14.D Density currents

14.E The return period

14.F Dimensions of wind's power density

15.1 Weather data

15.2 Weather forecasting

15.3 Past climates

15.4 Climates of the 20th century

15.A Weather radar

15.B Places of weather measurement

15.C Frost forecasting

15.D Feedback, chaos and unpredictability

15.E Sunspots and forecasting

15.F Effects of the Moon's phase

15.G Primitive equations for weather forecasting

15.H Numerical Weather Prediction

15.I Forecasting skill

15.J The 'tropics'

15.K Radiative equilibrium and global warming

16.1 Introduction

16.2 Climate classification

16.3 Antarctica

16.4 South America

16.5 South Africa

16.6 Australia

16.7 New Zealand

16.8 Conclusions

16.A Koeppen's classification of climates

16.B The 'Canberra metric' of similarity

16.C Selecting a site for a telescope

16.D Deserts

16.E Australian bushfires

16.F Kinds of vegetation in Australia

16.G Estimating crop yield from climate information

16.H Climate and housing

16.I Climate for the time of the Olympic Games in Sydney

16.J Indonesian climates

16.K A comparison between northern and southern climates

16.L European climates